London, a city, the capital of the United Kingdom. It
is one of the largest cities in the world - with a history of almost two
thousand years - and is one of the most diverse in the world. London is located
in the southeast of England, located on the other side of the river Thames,
about 50 miles [80 km] north of the North Sea. In satellite imagery the big
city can be seen sitting in the Green Belt of the open earth, with its main
circular highway (M25 highway) circled about 30 miles from the city center.
Its
visible boundaries are almost identical to the administrative and statistical
boundaries that separate the great city of Greater London from the "home
districts" in Kent, Surrey, and Berkshire (clockwise) south of the
river and Buckinghamshire, Hertfordshire, and Essex to the north. The historic counties of Kent,
Hertfordshire, and Essex extend beyond the present-day administrative districts
of similar names to include large sections of the Greater London metropolitan
area, built in 1965. Most of Greater London south of the Thames is covered by
the historic Surrey region, while much of Greater London north of the Thames is
historically in the Middlesex region (Preface to 2011.)
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City
Character If the boundary of a large city is well defined, its internal
structure is more complex and diminished in meaning. It is a physically
polycentric city, with many central regions and no clear monarchy between them.
In all respects it acts as a compound or confederal metropolis. “Square Mile,”
or simply “City”; facing the bridge over the lower rocks of the southern bank,
a town under Southwark; and a mile away, in a great valley just south of the
river, Westminster City. The three living quarters had different and related
roles. London, “the City,” was developed into a commercial, commercial, and
banking center. Southwark, "Valley," is known for its monasteries,
hospitals, travelers, exhibitions, theaters, and the great theaters of
Elizabethan London - Rose (1587), Swan (1595), and the world-famous Globe
(1599)).
Westminster grew up nearby, which brought the
royal palace and, on its train, everything in the heart of Britain - the
legislature, the administration and the judiciary. It also has open parks and
the most fashionable residential and shopping districts - the West End. The
residences of the northern banks came together into a single settlement built
in the early 17th century, but did not merge into one expanded municipality.
The City of London was different from major European cities in keeping its
medieval borders. Westminster and other cities were left to build their own
administrative buildings - a pattern that was a hundred times as London
exploded in size, becoming the epitome of today's big city. The population of
London had surpassed one million by 1800. A century later it reached 6.5
million.
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| London brig |
The expansion of the city body was not
prevented either by military defenses (which is a major factor in the European
continent) or by the intervention of state power (most evident in the planning
of the cities of Paris, Vienna, Rome, and other major cities of continental
Europe). Although much of London's aristocracy was dominated by aristocrats,
the church, and other imperialist institutions, its development was the work of
the inevitable capitalism driven by the demands of middle-class housing.
The
speculation of free-standing buildings flooded small towns and villages in an
area that continues to grow with each advancement in transportation technology
and purchasing power. The fortified area of London was about five miles [8 km]
from east to west in 1750, 24 miles [24 km] by 1850, and 30 miles [50 km] in
195 The evacuation and bombing of World War II was a turning point in London's
history because it brought a long period of rapid urbanization to an abrupt
end. After the war the government decided that the big city had grown
significantly because of its economic and social welfare and that its growth
was very dangerous.
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| London tower |
The
Green Belt was established, and subsequent growth was diverted across it.
Eventually, London's administrative boundaries were redesigned to include
almost all major cities, leading to modern-day Greater London (see the Greater
London table in Glance). The international tourist London is a much smaller
place. Tourist
traffic focuses on an area defined by the main attractions, each drawing
between seven and seven million visitors a year: Buckingham Palace, British
Museum, National Gallery, Westminster Abbey, Madame Tussaud's collection of arches, Tower of London,
three major museums in South Kensington (Natural History) , and Victoria and
Albert), and Tate's galleries. On average, the tourist attraction of London is
as much a city as it was toward the end of the 18th century, a city about 26
square miles [26 sq km] inland from Trafalgar Square. Londoners see the big
city with local names. Real estate agents and sellers inherit.
The situation in London City site Geologic foundation The southeastern country of England is made up of an immovable bed of thick white chalk, consisting of a white plate with lice-infested vegetation on the upper beds. Beneath the chalk is an incomplete layer of Upper Greensand (Cretaceous rock; 65 to 145 million years old) and a water-repellent 200-meter (60-meter-) waterproof layer of waterproof Gault. Beneath them also lies London's true geologic foundation, a stable platform of heavy old stone stones of the Paleozoic age (about 250 to 540 million years old). This basement is buried about 1,000 feet [300 m] below London, and then descends southward to a depth of more than 1,000 feet [1,000 m] below the English Channel.
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| London Eye |
London Basin is a south-level descent bounded by the North Downs chalk, running north to south, and north by the Chalk Hills, which rises northeast from the Goring Gap. The basketball platform carries the clay and sand sequence of the Neogene and Paleogene times (those 2.6 to 65 thousand years old), especially the hard, gray London Clay, which is 132 meters below the main city and supports its many tunnels and deep foundations. The subsoil is lined with stone deposits up to 10 meters deep, consisting mainly of mineralized rocks, quartz and quartzite. There is also a double layout of a brick-and-mortar, a mixture of clay and sand that is often mined with building materials. Finally, modern-day London is built on “artificial land,” the deposits of centuries-long human settlements, piled on average between 3 to 16 feet (3 to 5 m) in the oldest suburbs of the City and Westminster. Thames Valley The metropolitan area grew and spread over a relatively small valley defined by shallow soil and clay pottery rising 140 meters north of Hampstead and 115 feet 115 feet 115 Upper Upper Norwood 11 miles (18 km) south. Between the highlands to the north and south, the land falls on a series of plains separated by electric fields - some 30-150 meters (30-45 meters; Boyn fields, such as Islington, Putney, and Richmond) and the second and wider level, Taplow terraces, meters 15 to 30 feet (15 to 30 feet), where the City of London, West End, East End, and the southern highlands such as Peckham, Battersea, and Clapham live.
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Very
shallow soil, just a few feet above sea level, is a major floodplain. The
Thames overlooks the northern and southern plateaus as it surrounds the sea.
The Romans established a city in London where the northernmost meander passed a
high plateau to form a bluff on a cliff. There, at a high maritime border, it
was an ideal place for defense and trade alike. Most of London's subsequent
growth grew from this nucleus to the better-lit plains of the northern bank.
Construction remained extremely difficult in the wetlands south of the river
until the formation of seawater was completed in the 19th century. Panorama of
the city The natural environment of the earth can be appreciated in many public
places. Hampstead Heath offers the most beautiful panorama over the central
basin of the big city. But from Shooters Hill, Upper Norwood, or Alexandra
Palace one can choose one's own ideas: get into the dense sky of the City and
the West End or go to the open spaces of Home Counties, the river Thames, South
Downs, and Weald. Such panoramas show that London, in all its magnitude, is
almost identical to the cities of the first century of the 20th century than
the amorphous and crowded megalopolises of today, such as Tokyo or Los Angeles.
The Green Belt line after World War II runs smoothly in the hills around the
London Basin - a long wall of lakes south of London and, to the north,
a series of high plateaus from Iver Heath (above Heathrow Airport) clockwise
through Ruislip Common, Bushey Heath, Enfield Epping Forest, Hainault Forest,
and South Weald.
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| London station |
London
weather Ongoing London meteorological records date back to 1659, with some
details of wind direction obtained from 1723 and rainfall from 1697. 1836-45,
and 1875-82 were followed by a long rise after 1919, when London's climate became
warmer, especially because of the extreme weather during the autumn months.
Modern-day London has a temperate climate in the South East of England, with
pleasant winters and mild temperatures. Daytime air temperature is 52 ° F (11 °
C), and 42 ° F (5.5 ° C) in January and 65 ° F (18 ° C) in July. Statistics
show that the sun shines, however briefly, in five to six days. Londoners took
off their winter coats in April or May and began to dress warmly again in late
October. The prevailing winds are in the southwest. Due to the shelter effect
of Chiltern Hills and North Downs, the city has less rainfall than the Home
Provinces. In the middle of the year one can expect 200 dry days out of 365 and
a rainfall of about 23 inches (585 mm) equally distributed over 12 months. Snow
and ice conditions are less predictable. It varies greatly from year to year
according to the average mathematical average of 20 days. The coldest winter in
history was 1695, when the snow fell in 70 days. When snow falls (usually in the
first three months of the year), it seldom accumulates.
Semihardy plants can spend the winter in
London's gardens, however in a very safe and sunny place where the London vine
will pick grapes that are good enough to make wine. Nature Smoke and air pollution
For many years London was like smoke, a name coined in the early 20th century
to describe the city's combination of fog and smoke. The capital-soupers of the
capital were caused by a constant pollution of smoke and sulfur dioxide from
coal fires. The worst affected area was London's 19th-century inner and
industrial living in the interior - especially the East End, which had a large
population of smokers and industrial chimneys and low-lying land, preventing
dispersal. As recently as the early 1960's, the smoking districts of eastern
Inner London experienced a 30 percent reduction in hours of sunlight in winter.
That
problem is exacerbated by parliamentary laws (the Clean Air Act of 1956 and
1968) which prohibit the burning of coal, including the opening of old houses
and the loss of property. The
invisible but equally toxic pollutants of carbon monoxide, nitrogen dioxide,
ozone, benzines, and aldehydes continue to pollute London's air.
Traffic
and other debris can be trapped between the surrounding hills and below the
city's hot springs at an altitude of 3,000 feet [900 m], resulting in a rapid
increase in irritation of the eyes, asthma, and flu complaints. But London's
climate does not change much in order to develop the perfect smoke for
construction-type chemicals that can build up under the stable climate of
cities like Los Angeles. Water pollution Until the 1960's, the water in
London's rivers was as polluted as its air. They are liquid and brown with
scum, showing the effects of sewage and uncontrolled industrial pollution.
Strict environmental standards, combined with the closure of factories, have
resulted in improved water quality. Salmon, sea trout, roach, and flounder
returned to the river Thames, along with shrimps, prawns, sea horses, and (on the
other side of the size) giant conger eels.
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| London train |
City planning The complex London landscape can be simplified by using three basic patterns. First, there is the dividing line of the Thames that divides north and south London. For historical reasons, the most important areas lie north of the river. The south is actually a complex fabric of residential regions covered for miles that are common on the streets. It has no speed on the roads. Moreover, London varies from east to west. The waters of the River Thames and the constant flow of east-west winds. Thus, shipping, heavy transport, production, and regional operations improved down the East End, while rich and free classes built their homes and pursued their happiness in the West End. This social gradient was reinforced by the discovery of royal palaces at Westminster, Kensington, Richmond, and outside (London's border) Windsor. In part, the western sector has peaceful and beautiful open spaces on either side of the river, from St. Louis. James's Park, at the prime minister's house at No. , Wimbledon Common, Richmond Park, Royal Botanic Gardens in Kew, Richmond River, Hampton Court Park, and Bushey Park. Its appearance softens the effect of noise pollution under Heathrow Airport, on the west border.
The largest falls occur in the most dense areas. London's suburbs lost more than a third of its population in the decades following the war. In the 1980s the decline was slowed by declining population migration and rising birth rates in new immigrant families. The population of London began to grow slowly again by the 1990's, and by 2000 it had surpassed seven million; so it is comparable in size to New York City, although the latest largest city is located in a large urban district with a population almost three times the population of Greater London. Population Greater London is the most populous city in the United Kingdom and the most populous city in the European Union. One in seven people across the country focuses there, which compares with the importance of the country and the convergence of cities around Paris, Mexico City, and Tokyo. London's population is much higher than in other urban areas in the country. It is similar to that of the city of Amsterdam (though it is more than twice as large as that of the Greater Amsterdam agglomeration) and is probably very close to Greater Paris, which contains a great junction around the city well. The 19 cities of Outer London have a typical average of only two-fifths of those 14 indoor bombs.
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| London street |
However even in Inner London the street pattern and housing style lacks the resilience of the big cities in the major European cities. Only one-third of the residence had to be a residence. More than half of London's residential areas are houses with their plots of land. The most common type is a house with a terrace, or line. Large and institutional buildings are taking their place in an open and densely populated area that leaves a lot of land to be built even in densely developed areas. The construction of the city belongs to them and varies, showing political abhorrence, in this capitalist city, in the form of a set piece. It is rare for buildings to be used as part of a larger city structure. Racial formation The basis of history The relative stability of the entire population obscures the continued growth of the population. London, like any major city, operates as a crèche, always accommodating young immigrants who wish to liberate mature firms and families. But the countryside has moved. By the 19th century much of London's movement was domestic; most of the immigrants came from neighboring Home Provinces, with additional long-distance streams from Wales, Ireland, and Scotland.
Immigrants
also came, but London was less crowded than New York City or Boston. Its alien
settlements were small (mostly fewer than 1,000 people) and local, and some had
long been established. Bevis Marks, a synagogue in the Jewish Sephardic city,
was founded in 1656. St. Peter's Church Italian (1863) was the first Italian
church ever built outside Italy. Immigrants from Europe Toward the end of
19th-century London, the Italians met in Holborn and Finsbury, the French in
Soho, and the Chinese near the port of Limehouse, and there was a scattering of
Germans and Scandinavians around the City. Irish communities (then the subjects
of the British crown) were established in Whapping and Camden. The genocide of
Eastern Europe in the 1880s and 90s brought about 20,000 Jews from Poland and
Russia to settle on the eastern outskirts of the City of Whitechapel. Another
wave of Jewish immigrants fled to London from Germany.
Racial formation The basis of history The relative stability of the entire population obscures the continued growth of the population. London, like any major city, operates as a crèche, always accommodating young immigrants who wish to liberate mature firms and families. But the countryside has moved. By the 19th century much of London's movement was domestic; most of the immigrants came from neighboring Home Provinces, with additional long-distance streams from Wales, Ireland, and Scotland. Immigrants also came, but London was less crowded than New York City or Boston. Its alien settlements were small (mostly fewer than 1,000 people) and local, and some had long been established. Bevis Marks, a synagogue in the Jewish Sephardic city, was founded in 1656.
Immigrants
from Europe Toward the end of 19th-century London, the Italians met in Holborn
and Finsbury, the French in Soho, and the Chinese near the port of Limehouse,
and there was a scattering of Germans and Scandinavians around the City. Irish
communities (then the subjects of the British crown) were established in
Whapping and Camden. The genocide of Eastern Europe in the 1880s and 90s
brought about 20,000 Jews from Poland and Russia to settle on the eastern
outskirts of the City of Whitechapel. Another wave of Jewish immigrants fled
London from the German dictatorship in the 1930's, followed by a wave of
refugees from central Europe during the turmoil at the end of World War II.
After the war, Polish citizens buried their roots in Ealing west of London.
Jewish families became a city, with a special focus on Edgware, Golders Green,
Hendon, and Finchley in the northwest and Ilford in the northeast. The extreme
orthodox movement did not go far, only on the northern edge of the East End of
Hackney.
The
magnificent Cypriot communities of Greece and Turkey came to open shops,
restaurants, and small businesses on the outskirts of the City, rising quickly
to the city's success on the northern highways. Immigrants from the
Commonwealth To fill the vacancies of blue-collar workers who had been encouraged to leave London to take up jobs in new cities (areas of the Greater London metropolitan area), employers began searching for former colonies, now independent members of the British Commonwealth.
The
first wave of migration was from the Caribbean. Black Londoners find it
difficult to find public rental housing, and they concentrate as private
tenants in the residential regions of North Kensington and south of the Brixton
River, where they are joined by groups of immigrants from sub-Saharan Africa.
Kensington’s Notting Hill Carnival, which began in 1966 and held annually at
the end of August, remains the main celebration of West Indian life in London.
Later groups of immigrants from the Commonwealth settled in different parts of
the city: the Indians of Ilford, Ealing, and Hounslow; Bangladeshis in
Whitechapel (where they replaced the Jews in an unusual foreign order); and
Africans in Hackney, Southwark, Lambeth and Lewisham.
A
big city for many groups London, which has always been a densely populated
city, is growing in terms of polyglot and multiculturalism. Communication in
the Commonwealth has only been part of the transformation. Despite laws imposed
on immigrants, the influx of refugees and asylum seekers from many lands continued,
with the emergence of new communities of Vietnamese, Kurds, Somalis, Eritreans,
Iraqis, Iranians, Brazilians and Colombians. Many foreign nationals live in
dormitories in the poorer parts of Inner London, especially the inner bus
capital east of the City. On the other side of the economic sector, London's
position at the crossroads of the global economy brought the world's most
influential business people and schools, shops, rental organizations and
support services to them. Their social geography was completely different,
spreading to the arc through areas northwest and southwest. London has also
attracted wealthy foreigners to become property owners and citizens of the
year. Thus, people in the Middle East, East Asia, and Latin America are buying
buildings and properties such as Mayfair, Park Lane, and Belgravia.
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| London eye |
traveled east on Sunday morning to worship at their old church at the booth gates.
Economics
Commerce, administration and
recreation London
has been described elsewhere in this article as a polycentric city. The map of Elizabethan London shows that the fields and the
river separate the different centers: the City of London with ships, trade, and
handicrafts; Southwark and its gardens, hospitals, and theaters; and a royal
court in Westminster. London's modern economy has evolved steadily from three
interconnected trade, administrative and recreational areas. London is one of
the few commercial centers - along with New York City, Tokyo and Hong Kong -
where financial, financial, goods and insurance brokers operate worldwide. In
the first half of the 20th century and it was a large production area. Unlike
other major British cities, the closure of a London factory has been partially
partially compensated for by the city's financial and media services. As an
administrative center, London manages national health to a different degree.
The United Kingdom is constitutionally a united and politically focused country
with a strong focus on Europe.
Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland, the three English national partners within the United Kingdom, have the same patent and (since 1999) national conventions. But only three of them are the Scottish Parliament with great power. Much of the legislative power remains in the English capital, Westminster. British local governments increase their demands by less than one-fourth of their tax revenue and rely heavily on remittances from the institution. In British politics, almost all roads lead to London. London industry Posting For centuries, shipping was central to London's economy. The city has maintained its leadership as the largest port, the busiest in the world until World War II, when an average of 1,000 ships arrive and a weekly voyage.
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| London River |
Their factories, often built in a clean Art Deco style, line new London streets: Great West Road, West Avenue, and Purley Way. In both new and old sectors, London's manufacturing center focused on consumer goods industries (instead of medium and medium goods) such as leather products, clothing, wood and furniture, food and beverages, pharmaceuticals, specialty goods and products for printing and publishing, metal engineering and electrical engineering. The main heavy focus of the industry in London was on the roadside. The first and most important of these is the Thames and (to a lesser extent) its streams, especially in industries connected with large marine loads such as gasoline, sugar, grain, and wood. Industrial plants continued to control the banks of the river that flowed down Greenwich, but above the river they were almost replaced by apartments and residences. Other important production regions were on the main routes from London and near the North Circular Road into London about 5 km from the center.
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| London Term |
Thames London Thames highway. Most river crossings and most trips within London are byboat. Both banks are lined with stairs leading to the huts. The waters of theThames, controlled from the 14th century, formed their own organization orcompany in 1603.
After the construction of the railway, the river ceased to
carry more passengers, although there were attempts to revitalize its activity
as a major navigation system with hydrofoils, catamarans, and hovercraft. Many
tunnels and bridges now cross the Thames. Roads The most prominent physical
feature in London is the lack of a highway. City planners have made repeated
efforts to establish order in the capital.
Fortunately, both systems are frustrated, leaving London with autonomous
highways instead of a parallel network. An example is represented by a short
section of a divided highway along the north side of Square Mile - the remnants
of the Abercrombie plan of the inner ring road around the center of the
business center. After years of economic stagnation, the plan to grow it in the
west ceased and the land was sold. The office block of the city law firm now
closes the old vista of the old road system. The failure of road construction
has actually been a boon to London.
London
taxis London's unique black
taxicab is a common feature of the city. Cabs and their drivers, London
cabbies, are the product of the 1639 licensing system. About 1900 more than
11,000 registered cabs sought employment on the streets of London, and that
number was more than double a century later. Car cabs first appeared in 1904
and soon left the horse-drawn carriage (the last of which survived until 1947).
A regulation passed in 1906 required new clubs to be designed in such a way
that they could turn in the same solid wheel as a two-wheeled hansom cab. Still
active, it triggers a stunning movement of black cabs on the narrow streets of
London with their unique “sit-down” design. The Cabbies themselves are subject to
very old rules, which require them to pass a detailed test on geography, street
names, and key locations throughout the 10-mile radius from Charging Cross.
Trained taxi drivers who acquire “knowledge,” as it is called, are a common
sight on the streets of the capital. Management and Community Government City
Corporation The Mayor and the City Corporation of London formed one of the
world's largest local governments, with a history of municipal autonomy that
enters a continuous sequence into the societies of the early Middle Ages.
Square Mile remains an independent authority within its historic boundaries,
with its own police force and a comprehensive list of municipal services that
cater to the needs of a few residents and active people during the week. Over
the centuries the City Corporation has amassed great sources of money and
property, setting it aside for its historical enemies, the crown and nobles, in
the castle of a divided British society.
The
City has never been concerned about the wider problems of local government in
the big cities, except that they are depriving themselves of their status and
rights, which are strongly protected. Alongside the unstoppable nucleus of
Square Mile, city-wide arrangements were developed in stages. The City's indifference
left 19th-century 19 million people under the anarchic miscellany of democratic
organizations based on medieval church districts or temporary service
organizations established under local law. In 1855 the supply of water and
sanitation to all construction sites was taken under the control of the
Metropolitan Board of Works. Following allegations of corruption and lack of
accountability, the organization was transformed in 1889 into a governing body
for local government elected across London, the London County Council (LCC).
However, the City Corporation succeeded in lobbying for the preservation of its
independence and secured the formation of a second list of elected local
governments, cities and metropolitan areas, to serve as a war against the LCC.
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